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State and Society up to 1000 CE Chapter 5 1. How did society and state organise themselves prior to 1000 CE? 2. How did states and societies emerge and spread to different parts of the Indian subcontinent? 3. How did the ideas of dharma and chakravarti samrāṭ help create unity in social values and governance, and promote the idea of the Indian subcontinent as one political entity? 4. How did different social, administrative, and occupational groups take shape over time and come together culturally? The Big Questions In the previous chapter, we traced the long journey of human development from our early ancestors to the emergence of settled communities and, subsequently, civilisations. We also examined the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation along with other Bronze Age civilisations of the world. Let us now study the historical developments in the Indian subcontinent, with reference to state and society up to the end of the first millennium CE. By the end of this chapter, we will notice that our understanding of this period is more detailed and qualitatively enriched. This is because, from at least the second millennium BCE, we begin to find literary sources—the Ṛigveda being the earliest—that supplement archaeological evidence and provide insights into the social, political, cultural, and moral dimensions of the past. As a result, we gain insights into the social and political realities, ideas, ideologies, institutions, and practices of this period. We will begin with the social and political landscape described in the literary sources such as kin-based social organisation (jana, kula) and early forms of polity. Thereafter, we will study their development into more complex and bigger, territory-based political units like janapadas and mahājanapadas, and eventually into empires during the time of the Mauryas and the Guptas in northern India, and the Cholas in southern India. Alongside these Chapter 5 .indd 95 17-Jul-26 4:44:13 PM96 Understanding Society: India and Beyond Grade 9 – Part 1 changes, we will also examine elements of continuity, particularly the political ideal of a pan-Indian monarch—expressed through ritual practices such as the aśhvamedha yajña and the concept of the chakravarti samrāṭ—as well as the enduring socio-ethical principle of dharma. This long span of time (refer to Fig 5.1) witnessed the rise and fall of many dynasties and regional powers across the Indian subcontinent, which you have also explored in previous grades. In this chapter, we will gain a deeper understanding of the broad features of the state and society of this period, through representative examples from different regions of the subcontinent. LET’S EXPLORE As you read the chapter, follow the timeline at the bottom of each page. Notice the important events, changes, and connections across time. Think about which event interests you the most and why. By the end of the chapter, share one event you would like to explore further and document: Fig. 5.1. Broad timeline of early India Kin-based polities of RV* (Sapta-Sindhu region) Janapadas and mahājanapadas Emergence of empires (roughly pan-Indian in dimension); Early polities of southern India Regional empires; Imperial polities of southern India 1000 BCE Megalithic (Iron) PGW** PGW (Iron) Iron-NBPW*** 800 BCE 500 CE 300 BCE 700 CE 1000 CE Early India 2000 BCE Neolithic- Chalcolithic 300 CE *RV: Ṛigveda **PGW: Painted Grey Ware *** NBPW: Northern Black Polished Ware Chapter 5 .indd 96 17-Jul-26 4:44:27 PM97 5 – State and Society up to 1000 CE 1. What happened? 2. When did it happen? 3. Why do you think it matters? Understanding Early Indian State and Society Whenever large groups of people live together, certain rules and shared norms evolve over time to maintain order and harmony. These rules and norms bind different social groups into a unified whole, forming a ‘system’ that helps organise and govern people effectively. From early times, Indian society developed several such systems of organisation based on existing customs, traditions, and agreed practices. Before examining these systems, however, let us first explore a fundamental question—what is society? A society may be understood as a system of social relationships among individuals who share a common territory, culture, and a shared sense of belonging. It consists of structural units such as families or households, institutions such as marriage, and customs that provide a framework for individual and social life. Most importantly, society is primarily regulated by customs and practices rather than formal laws. And what is a State? As you read in your previous grades under the theme ‘Governance and Democracy’, a ‘State’ refers to an organised political system based on rules and laws. It includes well-defined rights and duties of rulers and subjects, mechanisms of governance, and institutions for enforcing law and order. From a historical perspective, such political systems developed gradually as societies became larger and more complex. By studying early historical sources, historians attempt to understand how forms of governance Political Developments Cultural and Religious Developments 2000 – BCE - 600 590 580 570 560 550 540 530 520 510 500 2000–500 BCE: Vedic period 1500–300 BCE: Upaniṣhads 600–300 BCE: Rise of the mahājanapadas 600–300 BCE: Life of Gautama Buddha and Mahāvīra Chapter 5 .indd 97 17-Jul-26 4:44:41 PMPolitical Developments Cultural and Religious Developments 490 480 470 460 450 440 430 420 410 400 98 Understanding Society: India and Beyond Grade 9 – Part 1 The Beginnings… The Vedas constitute the earliest known corpus of Indian literature, especially since the script used by the Harappans of the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation has not yet been deciphered. What we know today as Vedic literature existed in oral form for several centuries before it was written down. We have read in previous grades that the date of composition of the Ṛigveda remains debated among historians, with estimates ranging from the fifth millennium BCE to the second millennium BCE. We have also studied earlier that the Ṛigveda was composed in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, where the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation flourished. Interestingly, both the Ṛigveda and the Sindhu–Sarasvatī civilisation were familiar with copper. and political authority evolved over time. Against this background, let us now explore the evolution of the state and society in India, beginning with the Vedic period. 1500–300 BCE: Upaniṣhads Life of Gautama Buddha and Mahāvīra 600–300 BCE: Rise of the mahājanapadas Fig. 5.2. A Ṛigveda manuscript as rendered in Devanagari script Chapter 5 .indd 98 17-Jul-26 4:44:46 PMPolitical Developments Cultural and Religious Developments 390 380 370 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 99 5 – State and Society up to 1000 CE Yajurveda Atharvaveda 1500–300 BCE: Upaniṣhads 600–300 BCE: Rise of the mahājanapadas 321 BCE: Foundation of Mauryan Empire by Chandragupta Maurya State and Administration The Vedic Period The Four Vedas ƒ Samhitās primarily contain hymns used for invoking the deity and for offering oblations in the yajña. ƒ The Brāhmaṇa, composed in prose, offer explanations for ritual performances. ƒ The Āraṇyakas (araṇya = forest) expand on philosophical speculations of sages living in forests. ƒ The Upaniṣhads delve into issues like the Self (Ātman) and the Ultimate Universal Being (Brāhmaṇ). The earliest veda, containing some of the world’s oldestsurviving poetic compositions. It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), some in praise of various deities while others reflect on universal thoughts, such as creation and cessation, birth and death, and so on. Ṛigveda Elaborates the performative aspects of yajnās and the hymns referred to in the Ṛigveda. It includes explanations in prose. Comprises hymns drawn from the Ṛigveda, carefully arranged for musical recitation. Its chanting tradition forms an important foundation for the system of the seven svaras (notes) that lie at the heart of Indian music. Sāmaveda Contains a wide range of hymns—some intended to ward off evil, and others related to the treatment of physical and mental ailments. Note that while Brāhman is a concept, Brāhmaṇas are texts and Brāhmaṇas/Brahmins is a varṇa category. Each text of the Veda has the following four parts: samhitā, brāhmaṇa, āranyaka, and upaniṣhad. Chapter 5 .indd 99 17-Jul-26 4:44:47 PMPolitical Developments Cultural and Religious Developments 290 280 270 260 250 240 230 220 210 200 100 Understanding Society: India and Beyond Grade 9 – Part 1 Vedic texts are often used by historians and other scholars to learn about the times and geographies in which they were composed. For instance, the earliest sections of the Ṛigveda were composed in the region known as Sapta–Sindhu—including the Indus River, its five tributaries, and the Sarasvatī. Vedic texts are also studied to gain insights into the lives of people, social structures, political systems, economic pursuits, and religious practices. As one of the earliest texts and given the continuity of cultural practices, the Vedic texts are regarded as foundational to Indian culture and traditions. Political Institutions in the Vedic Period We have read in previous grades that early Vedic society was organised into janas, or clans. These were groups of people bound by kinship ties. The Ṛigveda alone mentions about thirty janas, five of which—the Yadu, Turvaśha, Puru, Anu, and Druhyu—were collectively known as the pañchajana (‘five peoples’). LET’S RECALL In previous grades, you have read that the name ‘Bharata’ first appears in the Ṛigveda. It is used in reference to the ‘Bharata jana’, or the people who were ruled by the family of the Bharatas. What does this tell us about how early communities identified themselves and their rulers? During this period, the rājā functioned primarily as a clan chief who led the group in warfare and ensured the protection of its members. The Vedic texts, particularly the Ṛigveda and Atharvaveda, refer to three assemblies. These were called the sabhā, samiti, and vidhata. 272–232 BCE: Philosophy of Dhamma 272–232 BCE: Aśhoka’s reign 300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas) 300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed Chapter 5 .indd 100 17-Jul-26 4:44:48 PMPolitical Developments Cultural and Religious Developments 101 5 – State and Society up to 1000 CE Each of these assemblies played a significant role in early Vedic polity. Assemblies during Vedic Period THINK ABOUT IT In modern democracies, heads of government exercise power but are bound by constitutions and parliaments, which function as representative bodies that check the powers of elected leaders. Do the roles of the rājā and the assemblies in Vedic times suggest a similar principle? Can we say that systems of governance in Indian history—since their early institutionalised forms—were guided by the idea of ensuring people’s participation in the political process? Sabhā � A smaller body that primarily served a judicial function. � Composed of select elites. Samiti � A larger assembly focused on policy decisions and political affairs. � Represented the broader population. � A popular gathering attended by members of the community (janas). � Functioned as a forum for discussions on warfare and other political matters. Vidhata 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas) 300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed 185 BCE: Foundation of Śhunga empire by Puṣhyamitra Śhunga Chapter 5 .indd 101 18-Jun-26 11:57:24 AM102 Understanding Society: India and Beyond Grade 9 – Part 1 LET’S ANALYSE If you visualise the maps of the Indian subcontinent of the second and first millennium BCE, you will find more settlements concentrated in the Ganga region in the latter map. Archaeological findings from this region during the first millennium BCE provide increasing evidence of the use of iron implements, a wider variety of grain, and the characteristic PGW pottery. Further, in the second half of the first millennium BCE, particularly in the middle Ganga region (from present-day Prayagraj to eastern Bihar), there is evidence of a refined Fig. 5.3. First millennium BCE (iron finds) 35°N 30°N 25°N 20°N 15°N 10°N 35°N 30°N 25°N 20°N 15°N 10°N 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E W S E N BAY OF BENGAL ARABIAN SEA 250 0 250 500 km Jakhera Ahar Dadupur Nagda Lahuradeva Birbir Raja-Nal-Ka-Tila Malhar Chaibasa Adichanallur Mahurjhari Naikund Nagarjunakonda Maski Kadambapur Watgal Hire Benakal Hallur Brahmagiri Marayur Mangadu Pudukkottai Indus R. Jhelum R. Chenab R. Ravi R. Sutlej R. Beas R. Ganga R. Ganga R. Yamuna R. Krishna R. Godavari R Mahanadi R. Kaveri R. Tungabhadra R Narmada R Tapi R. Betwa R Chambal R Banas R Brahmaputra R. LEGEND Megalithic Sites Early Finds of Iron Nartiang Nangbah Deodhoora Gandhara Caves Pirak Burzahom INDIAN OCEAN Chapter 5 .indd 102 18-Jun-26 11:57:28 AMPolitical Developments Cultural and Religious Developments 103 5 – State and Society up to 1000 CE ‘deluxe ware’ called NBPW, known for its smooth, glossy black surface. Archaeologically, this phase marks the emergence of a richer, more advanced material culture. Literary sources from this period also contain numerous references to expanding agricultural activities, increased grain output, greater crop variety—particularly paddy—and the use of iron implements. Can you identify the crucial factors behind this change? Early Kingdoms and Republics With the passage of time, the political organisation of Vedic society evolved into territorial entities known as janapadas. The term janapada literally means where a people ( jana) first set its feet, indicating a transition from kinship-based identity to territorial identity. This transition happened between approximately 1000 BCE and 600 BCE. In other words, people were not only connected solely by kinship ties but also by a sense of belonging to a land that gave them a more concrete sense of identity. Some scholars have viewed this transition as a consolidation of identity for the Vedic janas. Thus, control over land, agricultural production, and trade routes became increasingly important, leading to the development of more complex administrative systems. As a result, the period approximately from 600 BCE to 300 CE witnessed the rise of new political formations— mentioned in the contemporary texts as the mahājanapadas (bigger political units than janapadas). Historical sources for the period usually speak of sixteen mahājanapadas. Among these, Magadha, located in present-day Bihar, gradually emerged as the most powerful. Its strategic location, fertile plains, and strong rulers enabled it to expand its control over 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1st century BCE: Udaygiri and Khandagiri caves, patronage of art 1st century BCE: Khāravela’s reign 300 BCE–300 CE: Sangam literature composed 300 BCE–300 CE: Early kingdoms of Tamilakam (Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas) Chapter 5 .indd 103 18-Jun-26 11:57:30 AM104 Understanding Society: India and Beyond Grade 9 – Part 1 neighbouring regions. This expansion eventually led to the rise of the Mauryan Empire, which became one of the largest and most powerful empires in early Indian history. Another significant development during this period was the expansion of Vedic culture in the Ganga plains. While the early Vedic culture was most prominent in the northwestern regions, particularly the Indus and Sarasvatī valleys, the later Vedic period saw the Ganga plains emerge as the main centre. Consequently, the Anga Chedi 13 14 15 Avanti 16 Aśhmaka Kāśhī Malla 9 10 11 Vṛijji 12 Magadha 5 Śhūrasena 6 Pañchāla Vatsa Kosala 7 8 Kamboja Gandhāra 1 2 Matsya Kuru 3 4 Fig. 5.4. Spatial distribution of the sixteen mahājanapadas and kingdoms of Tamilakam 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E 65°E 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E 35°N 30°N 25°N 20°N 15°N 10°N 35°N 30°N 25°N 20°N 15°N 10°N 4 PANDYAS CHERAS CHOLAS 250 0 250 500 km W S E N BAY OF BENGAL ARABIAN SEA INDIAN OCEAN 4 5 6 10 12 14 15 16 7 11 8 9 3 1 2 Chapter 5 .indd 104 18-Jun-26 11:57:33 AM